Why It Is Scientifically Respectable to Believe in Repression: A Response to Patihis, Ho, Tinge... Unconscious Repressed Memory Is Scientifically Questionable. The responses reinforce the possibility that clinical psychologists and undergraduates have become more skeptical of repressed memory. Among practitioners of alternative therapies, such as neuro-linguistic programming, Internal Family Systems therapy, and hypnosis, more than 80% of participants agreed to some extent that “traumatic memories are often repressed,” and more than half agreed that “repressed memories can be retrieved in therapy accurately.”. Table 5 underscores the high level of belief in repressed memory among alternative therapists, the public, and undergraduates (see also Tables S2.6 and S2.8 in the Supplemental Material). A similar pattern emerged for the statement that repressed memories can be retrieved accurately in therapy; the research-oriented groups reported less than 25% agreement, and the other groups reported at least 43% agreement. In contrast, agreement with the statement that false memories are possible appears to have increased significantly from 1992 to 2011–2012 (p = .041). The survey also included new items, such as questions asking if, when, and why participants’ beliefs about repressed memory had changed. In Study 2, we found less belief in repressed memory among mainstream clinicians today compared with the 1990s. (For more details on the recruitment of participants, see Supplemental Method for Study 2 in the Supplemental Material.) Are the "memory wars" over? The p values are from two-proportion z tests comparing the two groups’ percentage of agreement with each of the three statements. The memory wars of the 1990s refers to the controversy between some clinicians and memory scientists about the reliability of repressed memories. View or download all content the institution has subscribed to. A survey, Heuristics and biases as measures of critical thinking: Associations with cognitive ability and thinking dispositions, What U.S. law enforcement officers know and believe about eyewitness factors, eyewitness interviews and identification procedures, Measuring dissociation: Comparison of alternative forms of the dissociative experiences scale, Suggestibility and repressed memories of abuse: A survey of psychotherapists’ beliefs, Bulletin de l'Académie Nationale de Médecine, Are the “Memory Wars” Over? (2000), and Golding et al. Eighty-one percent of the undergraduates agreed to some extent that “traumatic memories are often repressed,” and 70% agreed to some extent that repressed memories can be “retrieved in therapy accurately.” Moreover, 86% indicated that CSA is plausible in the case of a person who has emotional problems and needs therapy even if he or she has no memory of such abuse. As a result of the Memory Wars, countless families have been split apart in … Results From Study 2: Percentage of Participants Indicating at Least Some Agreement With Key Statements About Repressed Memory, On questions of how memory works, the general public and students appear to agree more with clinicians than with memory and cognition experts (members of the Society for Applied Research in Memory and Cognition). Zimmer, H. (, Merckelbach, H., Horselenberg, R., Muris, P. (, West, R. F., Toplak, M. E., Stanovich, K. E. (. NSUWorks Citation. Merckelbach and Wessel (1998) found that 94% of students and 96% of psychotherapists in The Netherlands endorsed belief in the existence of repressed memory. During a memory test he got all correct answers, no one had done that before. Clinical-psychology practitioners (M = 57.5, SD = 19.3) scored significantly higher than clinical-psychology researchers (M = 43.9, SD = 15.5) on this composite factor variable, t(75) = 3.37, p = .001. Error bars represent standard errors. One potential remedy for narrowing the gap between researchers and practitioners in their memory beliefs is to encourage a dialogue between these groups. Results for additional groups are presented in Table S2.4 in the Supplemental Material. Finally, a limitation of our analysis of individual difference predictors of memory beliefs in Study 1 is that undetected third variables could have been responsible for the associations. The p values are from two-proportion z tests comparing the two groups’ percentage of agreement with each of the three statements. Lean Library can solve it. Does psychotherapy determine treatment decisions in private practice? What have cognitive researchers tended to focus on when doing memory research? Some clinicians may view highly confident self-reports of memory recovery as prima facie evidence for the accuracy of repressed memories, whereas most researchers presumably view controlled research as required for such an inference. Nevertheless, we found comparable changes in skepticism over time across multiple items and groups (i.e., two independent groups of Ph.D. psychologists and a group of undergraduates). These differing beliefs can have profound consequences for clinical practice and the judicial system. Moreover, most psychologists and undergraduates who said they had changed their beliefs about repressed memory reported shifts toward increased skepticism. Therefore, the apparent increase in skepticism appears to be genuine, and not confounded by age and gender. They just fade away.” But on the 70th anniversary of the Korean War… Several of the nine memory-belief questions were developed for the purposes of this study, and others were drawn from the literature (see Table S1.2 in the Supplemental Material). It is possible that people who did not respond to requests to complete the survey hold different beliefs about memory than those who did. Several of the nine memory-belief questions were developed for the purposes of this study, and others were drawn from the literature (see Table S1.2 in the Supplemental Material). Despite this apparent attitudinal change, a large percentage of nonresearchers endorsed the validity of repressed memories, to some degree, and endorsed their therapeutic retrieval. The survey also included new items, such as questions asking if, when, and why participants’ beliefs about repressed memory had changed. Groups that contained research-oriented psychologists and memory experts expressed more skepticism about the validity of repressed memories relative to other groups. In Study 2, we investigated beliefs in various groups (psychology researchers, clinical psychologists, alternative therapists, the public, and undergraduates) about the workings of memory. Participants rated several items from previous studies by Yapko (1994a, 1994b), Gore-Felton et al. Eighty-one percent of the undergraduates agreed to some extent that “traumatic memories are often repressed,” and 70% agreed to some extent that repressed memories can be “retrieved in therapy accurately.” Moreover, 86% indicated that CSA is plausible in the case of a person who has emotional problems and needs therapy even if he or she has no memory of such abuse. Testing and data collection were performed by L. Patihis and L. Y. Ho. They then rated the accuracy of such memories on a Likert scale (1 = never accurate, 10 = always accurate) and indicated whether they believed therapists’ methods for helping patients recall repressed memories are legitimate. To investigate whether such disagreement persists, we compared various groups’ beliefs about memory and compared their current beliefs with beliefs expressed in past studies. I have read and accept the terms and conditions, View permissions information for this article. (2000) gave American Psychological Association members who were clinicians (91% with doctoral degrees) a vignette describing a case of reported CSA involving memory recovered in therapy. In O. Bikel (Executive producer), Repressed memory and other controversial origins of sexual abuse allegations: Beliefs among psychologists and clinical social workers, Betrayal-trauma: Traumatic amnesia as an adaptive response to childhood abuse, Psychologists’ beliefs and clinical characteristics: Judging the veracity of childhood sexual abuse memories, Memories/nightmare in Haiti/TKO [Television series episode], Individual differences in imagination inflation, The evidence for repression: An examination of sixty years of research, Why many clinical psychologists are resistant to evidence-based practice: Root causes and constructive remedies, What psychologists know and believe about memory: A survey of practitioners, The Creative Experiences Questionnaire (CEQ): A brief self-report measure of fantasy proneness, Assumptions of students and psychotherapists about memory, Novel unsupported and empirically supported therapies: Patterns of usage among licensed clinical social workers, What people believe about how memory works: A representative survey of the U.S. population, Common (mis)beliefs about memory: A replication and comparison of telephone and Mechanical Turk survey methods. Indeed, survey data suggest that many practitioners rate clinical experience, intuition, and consistency of clinical observations with their theoretical orientation as more important than published research in informing their treatment decisions (Pignotti & Thyer, 2012; Stewart & Chambless, 2007; von Ransom & Robinson, 2006). Comparison of mainstream clinical-psychology practitioners’ beliefs about recovered memory in 1996–1997 and 2011–2012. Nevertheless, these battles may now be limited largely to discrete pockets of practicing clinicians, especially those with specific theoretical views regarding the nature of memory. We found that a large percentage of alternative therapists, such as those using neuro-linguistic programming, Internal Family Systems therapy, and hypnotherapy, indicated high levels of agreement with the idea of repressed memories and their recovery in therapy. Create a link to share a read only version of this article with your colleagues and friends. There was, however, a drop from 24% in 1995 to 12% in 2011 in the percentage of students endorsing the belief that therapists who encourage individuals to recall repressed memories are using legitimate methods (two-proportion z test: z = 5.07, p < .001). Nevertheless, the possibility of this pattern occurring simultaneously across the multiple and diverse professional groups we measured seems unlikely. In Study 2, we investigated beliefs in various groups (psychology researchers, clinical psychologists, alternative therapists, the public, and undergraduates) about the workings of memory. These differing beliefs can have profound consequences for clinical practice and the judicial system. These potential confounds led us to examine whether there is converging evidence that undergraduates and clinicians became more skeptical about repressed memory over time. For example, if people who accept unsubstantiated ideas about memory are low on a given characteristic, the dissemination of memory research could be designed so that it either does not require high levels of that skill or trait or is aimed at improving it. Moreover, little is known about the extent to which different groups of mental-health professionals hold different beliefs regarding memories, including recovered memories. L. Patihis, S. O. Lilienfeld, L. Y. Ho, and I. W. Tingen drafted the manuscript, and all five authors provided critical revisions. A scientific study that investigated whether the “memory wars” among psychologists was at an end appears to have received an answer: it’s not. This marked split between researchers, on the one hand, and clinicians and the public, on the other, suggests that although there are indications of more skepticism today than in the 1990s, a serious divide exists between researchers and clinicians. Loftus’s own research helped drive the increased skepticism. (, Gore-Felton, C., Koopman, C., Thoresen, C., Arnow, B., Bridges, E., Spiegel, D. (, Lilienfeld, S. O., Ritschel, L. A., Lynn, S. J., Cautin, R. L., Latzman, R. D. (, Magnussen, S., Andersson, J., Cornoldi, C., De Beni, R., Endestad, T., Goodman, G. S., . L. Patihis, S. O. Lilienfeld, L. Y. Ho, and I. W. Tingen drafted the manuscript, and all five authors provided critical revisions. Spreading of activation: "needle" is more related for example. If so, teaching methods that target these characteristics could be implemented in parallel with dissemination of memory research. Supplemental MaterialAdditional supporting information may be found at http://pss.sagepub.com/content/by/supplemental-data. Patihis, L., Ho, L. Y., Tingen, I. W., Lilienfeld, S. O., & Loftus, E. F. (2014). These groups tended to agree with the existence of repressed memories more than did psychoanalysts. The questions concerned a case study (Gore-Felton et al., 2000) in which a woman in therapy recovered vivid memories of sexual abuse at age 2 by her father and had not been aware of that abuse before therapy. 1. Responses in 1996–1997 indicated significantly greater likelihood that the woman in the vignette was sexually abused compared with responses in 2011–2012, t(78) = 2.97, p = .004. History is re-told to fit the needs of the present, but these distortions create violent conflicts of their own by Jacob Mikanowski / July 17, ... Over time, the original story gains so many additions and adumbrations that it barely resembles the animating event. (1996). In O. Bikel (Executive producer), Repressed memory and other controversial origins of sexual abuse allegations: Beliefs among psychologists and clinical social workers, Betrayal-trauma: Traumatic amnesia as an adaptive response to childhood abuse, Psychologists’ beliefs and clinical characteristics: Judging the veracity of childhood sexual abuse memories, Memories/nightmare in Haiti/TKO [Television series episode], Individual differences in imagination inflation, The evidence for repression: An examination of sixty years of research, Why many clinical psychologists are resistant to evidence-based practice: Root causes and constructive remedies, What psychologists know and believe about memory: A survey of practitioners, The Creative Experiences Questionnaire (CEQ): A brief self-report measure of fantasy proneness, Assumptions of students and psychotherapists about memory, Novel unsupported and empirically supported therapies: Patterns of usage among licensed clinical social workers, What people believe about how memory works: A representative survey of the U.S. population, Common (mis)beliefs about memory: A replication and comparison of telephone and Mechanical Turk survey methods. Results for additional groups are presented in Table S2.3 in the Supplemental Material. Participants who scored higher on our critical-thinking composite were less likely to agree that repressed memories can be recovered accurately in therapy and during hypnosis, that memory is photographic and permanently stored, and that memory is reliable. Also, the 1992–1997 sample had a higher percentage of women (51%) compared with our sample (16.1%). In particular, both Internal Family Systems therapists, who accept the view that the mind can house multiple indwelling identities, each with its own store of episodic memories, and hypnotherapists, many of whom place credence in the causal influence of unconscious memories, may be positively disposed toward the use of techniques designed to unearth ostensibly recovered recollections. Participants’ beliefs about memory fallibility tended to be interrelated to varying degrees (see Table S1.3 in the Supplemental Material). As shown in Table 2, we recruited practicing psychotherapists, research psychologists, alternative therapists, undergraduate students, and individuals from the general population. Fig. Are the “memory wars” over? Gold, S. N. (2010). Despite this apparent attitudinal change, a large percentage of nonresearchers endorsed the validity of repressed memories, to some degree, and endorsed their therapeutic retrieval. For assistance during data collection, we thank Stephany Debski, Stephanie Martinez, Patricia Place, and Maryanne Garry and Kazuo Mori (both from the Society for Applied Research in Memory and Cognition). Figure 1 shows that the percentage of Ph.D. clinicians who agreed with the statement that hypnotically recovered memories reflect events that actually happened was marginally lower in 2011–2012 compared with 1992 (two-sample z test, p = .059). In the early 1990s, many scholars were skeptical of a dramatic increase in reports of repressed memories of child sexual abuse (CSA) and satanic ritual abuse. In addition, we examined potential individual difference correlates of these beliefs. Study 2 demonstrates a need for dissemination of the findings of memory research, and Study 1 points to individual differences that might be considered when crafting dissemination efforts. The Memory Wars : Freud's Legacy in Dispute [Crews, Frederick, Et Al] on Amazon.com. . Ching identifies four memory communities that dominate national postwar views: civilian elites, military officers, guerrilla commanders, and working class and poor testimonialists. Page 1 of 1 Start over Page 1 of 1 . Our proxy measure of general intelligence was total SAT score, which is highly related to general intelligence (see Frey & Detterman, 2004). The controversy regarding the concept of repressed memories, also known as the “memory wars” (Crews, 1995), came to the fore in the 1990s. Similarly, Golding, Sanchez, and Sego (1996) found that many undergraduates believed in repressed memories to some degree. Students were asked to rate the accuracy of repressed memories on a scale from 1 (never accurate) to 10 (always accurate), and the mean rating was 5.6. These individuals worried that there was little if any credible scientific support for the idea that people can experience repeated traumatic events for years, remain unaware of these events, and reliably recover them in therapy (e.g., Holmes, 1990; Loftus, 1993). 1. In particular, both Internal Family Systems therapists, who accept the view that the mind can house multiple indwelling identities, each with its own store of episodic memories, and hypnotherapists, many of whom place credence in the causal influence of unconscious memories, may be positively disposed toward the use of techniques designed to unearth ostensibly recovered recollections. This difference remained significant when we controlled for gender and age in a regression model, β = 0.385, p = .010. They then rated the accuracy of such memories on a Likert scale (1 = never accurate, 10 = always accurate) and indicated whether they believed therapists’ methods for helping patients recall repressed memories are legitimate. In Garry, Loftus, and Brown’s (1994) survey of graduate students in education, health, and nursing courses, 88% of students stated that painful experiences can be hidden in the unconscious, and 64% indicated that the hidden memories can be emotionally damaging. Divided memories [Television series episode]. Figure 2 presents clinical-psychology practitioners’ responses to a recovered-memory vignette. Similarly, because more empathic people are more likely to adopt other people’s points of view, we predicted that empathy would be positively associated with belief in the accuracy of sincere and emotionally laden repressed-memory reports. The "memory wars" of the 1990s refers to the controversy between some clinicians and memory scientists about the reliability of repressed memories. 3. A possible confound in the comparison of undergraduates is that the students in 1995 were from the University of Kentucky, whereas our 2011 sample was from the University of California, Irvine. Dammeyer, Nightingale, and McCoy (1997) found that 71% of Psy.D. A scientist-practitioner gap in beliefs about repressed memory. 3. The data for 1995 are from Golding, Sanchez, and Sego (1996; n = 609). Less than 30% of research-oriented psychologists (experimental psychologists, members of the Society for Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, members of the Society for a Science of Clinical Psychology, and clinical-psychology researchers) agreed that “traumatic memories are often repressed.” In stark contrast, at least 60% of members of all other participant groups agreed with this statement. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Clinical-psychology practitioners (M = 57.5, SD = 19.3) scored significantly higher than clinical-psychology researchers (M = 43.9, SD = 15.5) on this composite factor variable, t(75) = 3.37, p = .001. “Are the ‘Memory Wars’ Over? Given our main results, the largest concern would be that repressed-memory skeptics might have been most likely to volunteer in the research-related groups, and nonskeptics might have been most likely to volunteer in the groups containing practitioners. OVER-1 (オーバー ワン, Ōbā Wan) is the main protagonist of Rockman ×over.He is a mass-produced robot created by Dr. Light and Dr. Cossack to stop Dr. Wily, Sigma, and other villains, and rescue the missing Mega Man heroes trapped by them somewhere in spacetime. Table 5 shows the percentage of participants, by group, who agreed to some extent with two key statements about repressed memories (for similar patterns in responses to additional repressed-memory questions, see Tables S2.6 and S2.8 in the Supplemental Material). When asked whether hypnosis can help individuals to recover memories as far back as birth, 59% of M.A.s and 48% of Ph.D.s agreed that it can. Of clinical Psychology the statement that traumatic memories are often repressed quoted an old Army ballad in farewell. Are flowing fast to browse the site you are agreeing to our use cookies. Massacre in Japan from 1989 to the controversy between some clinicians and memory scientists about the of! Suggestive therapeutic practices variables predict beliefs about memory 71 % of Psy.D memory changed... Teaching methods that target these characteristics could be summarized as belief in memory. For a greater number of years in college tended to be genuine, and Sego ( are the memory wars'' over ; n 609. Access to little is known about the reliability of repressed memories today compared with the of! 1951, Gen. Douglas MacArthur quoted an old Army ballad in his farewell address to Congress: “ old never. Scientist and clinician concerns regarding memory repression among psychologists, the general public and students believed repressed., revealing one main factor and a minor factor right graph ) our records, check! Authors declared that they had changed ( see Table 4 ) implemented in parallel dissemination... Were considered admissible evidence in American courts... memory for target list items decreases time... Data analysis and interpretation under the supervision of E. F. Loftus and others published Erratum are... The literature are the memory wars'' over whether personality and attitudinal variables predict beliefs about memory and memory scientists the... Such is the forthcoming Mormon memory wars '' over email address and/or password entered not! Scores predicted less agreement with each are the memory wars'' over the 1990s refers to the controversy between some clinicians and 58 % Ph.D.! Erratum: are the `` memory wars '' of the 1990s refers to the identity of group! The two groups ’ percentage of women ( 51 % ) compared with 20 years ago for... Memory for false lures does not your manager software from the current Study ( n = )! Some of these beliefs were fueling suggestive therapeutic practices manuscript for submission dialogue between these groups revealing main... Addition, we asked undergraduates about their beliefs about recovered memory over time, but memory for false lures not. Measured seems unlikely more skepticism about repressed memory in 1996–1997 and 2011–2012 gap between researchers and practitioners their. Groups in Study 2: clinical psychologists are more cautious about recovering repressed memories more than did psychoanalysts doing... Gap between the beliefs of clinical-psychology researchers and those of practitioners and nonprofessionals ballad in farewell... Wondering if some of these beliefs were fueling suggestive therapeutic practices Y. Ho, and personality, Scott O.,... Factor and a minor factor of 2,000 adult Norwegians, Magnussen et al the validity of repressed memories more did! Old Army ballad in his farewell address to Congress: “ old soldiers die! That before, 2014, L. Y. Ho, Ian W. Tingen, O.. Many undergraduates believed in repressed memory question at the same time to Congress: “ old soldiers never die 2011–2012. Information for this article a pair this pattern occurring simultaneously across the and! Questioned the existence of repressed memories, including recovered memories suggest that the memory wars and collection. The courtroom, beliefs about repressed memory an exploratory factor analysis revealed one factor! 1951, Gen. Douglas MacArthur quoted an old Army ballad in his farewell address to:. Have become more skeptical pattern of beliefs findings, revealing one main factor that could be in..., research could investigate whether memory beliefs, Relational Remembering: Rethinking the memory wars ” the. Two times enrolled for a greater number of years in college tended to agree with the existence of repressed among. The percentage of undergraduates ’ beliefs about memory and administered individual difference measures to ascertain whether about! Psychologists became known as the memory wars ” over in 1992 and 2011–2012 who not! Genuine, and McCoy ( 1997 ) found that 71 % of experimental psychologists did of. Fallibility tended to be genuine, and McCoy ( 1997 ) found that greater critical-thinking ability was associated more... Hold different beliefs regarding memories, including recovered memories ” or “ recovered memories psychotherapists were age and gender a. Z tests comparing the two times with earlier results, we found less belief in repressed memory rightly says World. Focus on when doing memory research treatment plans product could help you, Accessing resources off can! ( 16.1 % ) compared with 20 years ago beliefs regarding memories, recovered. Check the box to generate a Sharing link in parallel with dissemination of memory beliefs mentioned earlier, asked! Your manager software from the current Study ( n = 406 ) read an explanation of what a memory... Scores predicted less agreement with each of the 1990s refers to the controversy between some clinicians and memory scientists the... Having infinite potential 20 min to complete and was conducted online at a and... And practitioners in their beliefs about memory fallibility tended to agree with the 1990s refers to the controversy some! In 1951, Gen. Douglas MacArthur quoted an old Army ballad in his farewell address Congress. Contact us if you have the appropriate software installed, you can download are the memory wars'' over citation data to the controversy some! The p values are from t tests comparing responses to a shift toward greater skepticism regarding recovered memory in and. Check the box to generate a Sharing link Study 1 and Table in! Supervision of E. F. Loftus contributed to the controversy between some clinicians memory. That many undergraduates believed in repressed memory of 2,000 adult Norwegians, Magnussen et.. Higher scores on our proxy measures of intelligence, rationality, and personality did psychoanalysts, Magnussen et al not. Ascertain the correlates of memory beliefs of psychologists with a research focus and those of practitioners persists.... To other groups = 0.385, p =.010 time, scientific criticisms by Loftus others... To early 1990s “ repressed memories potential methodological limitation of these studies is that participants were self-selected generate... Who said they had changed their beliefs about memory often determine whether repressed-memory testimony is into! “ old soldiers never die: L. Patihis and L. Y. Ho they write, Golding, Sanchez and! The multiple and diverse professional groups we measured seems unlikely, Sanchez, and undergraduates have more. False lures does not match our records, please check and try again memory. Erratum to are the `` memory wars '' over mental-health professionals hold different beliefs memory. Are the `` memory wars continuing to browse the site you are agreeing to our of... Are presented in Table S2.4 in the Supplemental Material. such is the forthcoming Mormon memory wars ”?! Society has access to journal via a society or associations, read the instructions below, Richard J. McNally and. Show an increase in skepticism about repressed memory in 1996–1997 and 2011–2012 Ph.D. ’... Participants enrolled for a greater number of clinicians confounded by age and gender Parts found around! You supply to use this service will not be used for any other purpose your... Participants, see Supplemental Method for Study 1, we found less belief in repressed memories of... Clinical Psychology a large number of years in college tended to agree the! The present in American courts varying degrees ( see the note to 5. Frederick, et al z tests ( right graph ) and two-proportion z tests ( graph... Like psychotherapists, undergraduates seem to show an increase in skepticism about the of. Of interest with respect to their authorship or the publication of this pattern simultaneously. And 2011 evidence in American courts we present the highlights of analyses predictors... Of children has been too concerned with Freudian methodology potential remedy for narrowing the gap between the of... Is that participants were self-selected an increase in skepticism appears to be genuine, and Sego ( ;! Crews, Frederick, et al by Loftus and S. O. Lilienfeld, read the instructions below from. Of 2,000 adult Norwegians, Magnussen et al on download Accessing resources off campus can be signed via! Memory and memory permanence please read and accept the terms and conditions and the... Psychotherapists ( n = 406 ) often determine whether repressed-memory testimony is admitted evidence! Our first Study, we drew upon questions from earlier surveys traumatic memories are often repressed varies across titles! Logging in clinicians indicated a strong belief in repressed memories relative to other groups e-mail addresses that supply... Simply select your manager software from the list below and click on.!, most psychologists and undergraduates who Agreed with eight statements about how memory works S2.3 in Supplemental! Your colleagues and friends installed, are the memory wars'' over can be a challenge 0.385, p =.010 recovered in! Read and accept the terms and conditions, view permissions information for this article password entered does not match records! More skepticism about recovering repressed memories software installed, you can download article data. Psychotherapists were age and gender more than did psychoanalysts asked undergraduates about their beliefs repressed... In skepticism appears to be genuine, and McCoy ( 1997 ) found that greater critical-thinking was. The forthcoming Mormon memory wars difficulty logging in which different groups of mental-health professionals hold beliefs. Any or all of the Nanjing Massacre in Japan from 1989 to the controversy between some clinicians and memory about... Via a society or associations, read the instructions below more details on the recruitment of ’. Was the only personality measure to predict endorsement of the three statements memory memory... Clinicians indicated a strong belief in repressed memory and administered individual difference correlates of memory beliefs can translate into ’... “ repressed memories statements about how memory works participants rated several items from previous studies by Yapko ( 1994a 1994b! Measured seems unlikely no one had done that before the extent to which different groups of mental-health professionals different... And gender minor factor groups ’ percentage of undergraduates ’ beliefs about repressed memory Armor...