VI.110–114), the physicalaspects of the emotions were dealt with as slow or quick movements ofthe vital spirits towards the heart or away from it. In J. Blacking (Ed.). AER can be adaptive or maladaptive and has important health implications (Hopp, Troy, & Mauss, 2011). In Prinz’s theory, the mental state (the emotion) is caused by bodily activity, but, rather than being about the bodily activity, the emotion is about something else, namely these simple pieces of information that the mental state represents. In addition to the affect program emotions, he suggests some emotions are cognitively mediated and some are socially constructed. Hans Selye was a Canadian researcher who subjected rats to various stressors such as very cold or hot temperatures and loud noises. Keltner, D., Haidt, J., & Shiota, M. N. (2006). Bringing these parts together into one coherent whole are the mental constructs that allow an individual to construe all of these various elements as grief. Fundamental feelings. A fear stimulus is processed by the brain through one of two paths: from the thalamus (where it is perceived) directly to the amygdala or from the thalamus through the cortex and then to the amygdala. This is in contrast to theories that state that the generation of the emotion response is a direct and automatic result of perceiving the stimulus—these non-cognitive theories are discussed below. In Plutchik’s theory, these adaptations are, in one sense, types of animal behaviors. Robinson, J. Ekman and Griffiths both believe that this system accounts for a significant number of the emotions that humans experience, but neither think that it describes all emotions. Having this evaluative component in the process means that an emotion is not a simple and direct response to a stimulus. One tentative conclusion that can now be drawn is that it is unlikely that any single theory will prevail anytime soon, especially since not all of these theories are in direct competition with each other. A., & Jose P. E. (1996). Some examples are: anger and disgust mixing to form contempt; fear and sadness mixing to form despair; and with regard to levels of intensity, annoyance is a milder form of anger, which is itself a milder form of rage. Table 2. This classification creates a psychological category, which Griffiths terms the affect program emotions: surprise, anger, fear, sadness, joy, and disgust. Judging is the central idea in these theories because it is something that the agent actively does, rather than something that happens to the individual. For these cases, Armon-Jones suggests that the emotion has still been learned by the individual, just not in a way that is consistent with what the larger portion of the society would endorse. Thus, a change in an individual’s beliefs—in his or her way of seeing the world—entails a different emotion, or none at all. Robert Plutchik claims that there are eight basic emotions, each one is an adaptation, and all eight are found in all organisms (1980, 1984). The part of this process that includes (B) and (C) is what Damsio calls the emotion. (2004). As an illustration of this, let us say that Bill’s brother-in-law has just offered to let him in on a risky, but possibly lucrative business venture. Zajonc, R. B. In any case, the consequence is that there can be a feeling even if the body is not involved. Non-cognitive theories are those that defend the claim that judgments or appraisals are not part of the emotion process. Griffiths adopts a slightly different way of describing the model; he treats Ekman’s two mechanisms as a single system, which he calls the affect program. The concern is what intervenes between the perception of a stimulus and the emotion response. James describes it this way: “the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact [that is, the emotion causing event], and … our feeling of the same changes as they occur is the emotion,” (1884, p. 189–90, italics and capitalization removed). This aspect of her theory can also be used to explain how an individual can be cognitively aware that he or she has been unjustly treated, or been unexpectedly rewarded, but not experience any emotion (for example, anger, or sadness, or happiness)—a situation which does seem to occur sometimes. Prinz, J. J. That being said, although the individual chooses the role, Averill stresses that the emotional responses are interpreted by the agent as passive responses to particular situations, not as active choices. Allowing that emotions may also serve other purposes, some of the functions that they have are “the regulation of socially undesirable behavior and the promotion of attitudes which reflect and endorse the interrelated religious, political, moral, aesthetic and social practices of a society” (1986b, p. 57). (1997). James-Lange Theory 2. As an early contribution, Roseman’s theory is in some ways simpler than more recent cognitive appraisal theories and so will serve as a good introduction. The first develops an explanation of the non-cognitive process, but claims that only some emotions are non-cognitive. Related to Ekman’s notion of an elicitor, Griffiths suggests that this system includes a “biased learning mechanism,” which allows it to easily learn some things, but makes it difficult for it to learn others. Of course, there are times when emotion responses do not adhere well to what one may think of as moral rules or values, for instance, taking pleasure in creating graffiti or taking pride in hurting people. The possibility that there is an as-if loop in the brain allows the somatic feedback theorists to explain how individuals who cannot receive the typical feedback from the body can still have feelings (or in Prinz’s language, emotions), for instance, those individuals who have suffered spinal cord injuries. (2000). Criteria for emotion-antecedent appraisal: A review. It is also similar to the theories developed by William James (1884) and, more recently, Jesse Prinz (2004a), which are discussed in the next section. The advantage that Prinz’s theory has over James’ is that it incorporates a plausible account of the intentionality of emotions into a somatic feedback theory. The causal order is important, emotion is a psychosomatic state, a bodily state caused by an attitude, in this case an evaluative attitude (1980, pp. Some possible examples of emotions that were selected for in early hominids. There are different theories of emotion to explain what emotions are and how they operate. Prescription, explication and the social construction of emotion. The idea of AER is that people develop an automatic process that works like a script or schema, and the process does not require deliberate thought to regulate emotions. (1984). This section will focus on Ira Roseman’s theory (1984), which was one of the first cognitive appraisal theories. In any case, it is the feedback that the mind (or brain) gets from the body that makes the event an emotion. The angry response should be proportional to the instigation; that is, it should not exceed what is necessary to correct the situation, restore equity, or prevent the instigation from happening again. First, different individuals will respond to the same event with different emotions, or the same individual may at different times respond differently to the same stimulus. The major theories of emotion can be grouped into three main categories: physiological, neurological, and cognitive. Since (B) and (D) co-occur, the feeling will be accompanied by the information that triggered the bodily response. (1980). In K. R. Scherer & P. Ekman (Eds.). Emotions also have a relatively brief duration—on the order of seconds or minutes—whereas moods last much longer. Emotions in the constructivist theory are predictions that construct your experience of the world. In Griffiths’ theory, the other emotions belong to different categories—the higher-cognitive emotions and the socially constructed emotions—and in some cases a single vernacular term, for example, anger, will have instances that belong to different categories. Studying the emotion-antecedent appraisal process: An expert system approach. Another study examined the relationship between pregaming (the act of drinking heavily before a social event) and two emotion regulation strategies to understand how these might contribute to alcohol-related problems; results suggested a relationship but a complicated one (Pederson, 2016). Male participants were randomly assigned to one of several groups. As an example of how specific and recognizable these norms, values, and expectations sometimes are, one can consider “emotion rules” that Americans often follow. Averill, J. R. (1980). (2001). Thus, the individual will take him or herself to be experiencing jealousy, even though the actual emotion process was the one specific to anger (2004, 2005). The thesis of constructionism. Nussbaum, M. (2004). Emotion and memory: The second cognitive revolution. Every individual who understands this syndrome may at different times have the following grief responses: shock, crying, refusing to cry (that is, keeping a stiff upper lip), declining to eat, neglecting basic responsibilities, and so on. The early part of the emotion process is the activity between the perception and the triggering of the bodily response (that is, the emotion response), and the later part of the emotion process is the bodily response: changes in heart rate, blood pressure, facial expression, skin conductivity, and so forth. Psychology Theories of Emotion. Judgment theories are the version of the cognitive position that have been developed by philosophers. (1984). Ekman’s automatic appraisal mechanism and Robinson’s affective appraisals are both supposed to determine which emotion is generated. Although these emotions are still present in humans today, they may no longer be useful, and may even be counterproductive, as Cosmides and Tooby’s description of the more violent aspects of sexual jealousy illustrates. In the past forty years, a vast amount of data has been collected by cognitive and social psychologists, neuroscientists, anthropologists, and ethologists. An argument for basic emotions. The Japanese have the emotion amae, which is a feeling of dependency upon another’s love. All of these various components are linked together for an individual by principles of organization. The same is almost certainly true of the neural mechanisms that control those movements” (Griffiths, 2004, p. 238). She acknowledges that in some cases, an emotion might be caused by cognitive activity, but this is explained as cognitive activity that precedes the non-cognitive emotion process. This is a point that James illustrates with the following thought experiment: If we fancy some strong emotion, and then try to abstract from our consciousness of it all the feelings of its characteristic bodily symptoms, we find we have nothing left behind, no “mind-stuff” out of which the emotion can be constituted, and that a cold and neutral state of intellectual perception is all that remains (1884, p. 193; notice that Nussbaum articulates the opposite intuition in a quote above). Untangling the appraisal–emotion connection. In this case, the evidence from non-mammals indicates that this trait was not selected because it aids live birth, although it later became useful for this task. (1984). . Adherents of this position suggest that each emotion should be understood as a set of programs that guide cognitive, physiological, and behavioral processes when a specific type of problem is encountered (Tooby & Cosmides, 1990; Cosmides & Tooby, 2000; Nesse, 1990). For example, “threat displays in chimps look very different from anger in humans, but when their superficial appearance is analyzed to reveal the specific muscles whose movement produces the expression and the order in which those muscles move, it becomes clear that they are homologues of one another. The five appraisal components are described as follows: Just like the judgment theorists, Roseman and the other appraisal theorists say that these appraisals do not have to be deliberate, or even something of which the individual is consciously aware. (1986). There are definitely more than three theories of emotions. In some contexts, Nussbaum treats judgments and beliefs interchangeably and it is sometimes the case that a series of judgments constitute the emotion. None of these events share any physical feature or property, but all of them can cause the same response. Ekman appears to have been aware of the modular nature of this system when he wrote, “The difficulty experienced when trying to interfere with the operation of the affect programme, the speed of its operation, its capability to initiate responses that are hard to halt voluntarily, is what is meant by out-of-control quality to the subjective experiences of some emotions” (1977, p. 58). Although the time period during which this selection is believed to have occurred is typically not specified with any precision, the general period begins after the human lineage diverged from that of the great apes, 5 to 8 million years ago, and continues through the appearance of Homo sapiens, which was at least 150,000 years ago (Wood & Collard, 1999; Wood, 1996). Some judgment theorists are, however, more accommodating and allow that the bodily response is properly considered part of the emotion, an effect of the judgments that are made. These knowledge structures can include concepts, schemas, or scripts. Facial expressions. Nevertheless, although answering this question is important for a complete understanding of the emotions, it does not greatly affect the theories mentioned here, which are largely based on what occurs in the early part of the emotion process. Neuroscienctist Jospeh LeDoux does more than study emotional processing and conditioning in rats—he is also the lead singer in his band, The Amygdaloids. In contrast to theories that claim that the emotions are the result of natural selection that occurred in early hominids, another position is that the selection occurred much earlier, and so the adaptations are shared by a wider collection of species today. Elicitors can vary by culture, as well as from individual to individual. Appraisal determinants of emotions: Constructing a more accurate and comprehensive theory. Evolutionary theorists tend to downplay the influence of thought and learning on emotion, although they acknowledge that both can have an effect. It will help to begin by clarifying some terminology. However, another way of considering emotions challenges our entire understanding of emotions. (2008). Grief and a headhunter’s rage: On the cultural forces of emotions. Harré, R. (1986). Some of them are compatible, for instance, an evolutionary theory and a theory that describes the emotion process can easily complement each other; Griffiths’ theory of the affect program emotions demonstrates that these two perspectives can be employed in a single theory. The evolutionary approach focuses on the historical setting in which emotions developed. Appraisal theory: Overview, assumptions, varieties, controversies. The first is based on the claim that emotions are the result of natural selection that occurred in early hominids. In this way, emotions differ from reflexes such as the startle response or the eye-blink response, which are direct responses to certain kinds of stimuli. Two identical physiological states can result in different emotional states depending on your predictions. That is, emotions are the products of societies and cultures, and are acquired or learned by individuals through experience. In R. Plutchik & H. Kellerman (Eds.). In R. Harré (Ed.). That is, these theories establish an interval with two axes (for example, positive or negative valence) and include the emotions within that interval. 28–34). It is in light of these factors that an individual evaluates the event. Jesse Prinz has recently expanded upon James’ theory. As Searle (1979: 48) points out, “[a]ll intentional states consist of a representative content in a psychological mode”. Notice also that the different emotions all use the same appraisal components, and many emotions take the same values for several of the components. Each of these four theories explains the order of events that occur when an emotion is present. The words emotion and mood are sometimes used interchangeably, but psychologists use these words to refer to two different things. The cognitive appraisal theorist Klaus Scherer claims that each appraisal component directs specific bodily changes, and so his answer to this question is affirmative (2001); Griffiths says that is likely that each affect program emotion has a unique bodily response profile (1997, pp. Further, the conditions that the individual understands should elicit grief are also part of this syndrome: the death of a loved one, the loss of a valuable object, a setback at work, rainy days, and so forth. How would you describe how your arousal manifested itself physically? Interference with ongoing activity might be characteristic of some anger elicitors (1977, pp. In particular, when the appropriate stimulus is presented to the system the triggering of the response is mandatory, meaning that once it begins it cannot be interfered with or stopped. Other theories related to emotions are the Cognitive Appraisal theory and the Facial-Feedback theory. A number of anthropological studies have found discrepancies among the emotion words used in different languages. Walter Cannon and Philip Bard developed another of the main theories of emotions that we study today. On the left are the behaviors that, according to Plutchik, are the result of natural selection, and on the right are the emotions associated with these behaviors. This is challenging, since emotions can be analyzed from many different perspectives. Hope this helps, A Anger should be directed only at persons and, by extension, other entities (one’s self, human institutions) that can be held responsible for their actions. As the psychologists Ira Roseman and Craig Smith point out, “Both individual and temporal variability in reaction to an event are difficult to explain with theories that claim that stimulus events directly cause emotional response” (2001, p. 4). Finally, cognitive theories argue that thoughts and other mental activity play an essential role in forming emotions. This is a claim for which there is some evidence, although except for facial expressions, the current evidence is not very strong (see Ekman, 1999; Levenson, Ekman, & Friesen, 1990; Prinz, 2004b). Each emotion serves to signal use to either continue or discontinue a particular action. Roseman, I. J. Accidie was a negative emotion that Harré and Finlay-Jones describe as “boredom, dejection, or even disgust with fulfilling one’s religious duty” (Harré & Finlay-Jones, 1986, p. 221). While these theories acknowledge that in many cases various bodily responses will accompany the emotion, many do not consider the bodily response an integral part of the emotion process. The third theorist in this group, Antonio Damasio, is also able to account for the intentionality of the mental state that is caused by feedback from the body. The social functions of emotion. In K. R. Scherer, A. Schorr, & T. Johnstone (Eds.). However, your brain predicting a churning stomach while you were waiting for medical test results could lead your brain to construct worry. Here we’ll focus on the main three theories of emotion that explain the connection between the body and mind. For example, it is easier for humans to acquire a fear of snakes than a fear flowers (Griffiths, 1997, pp. In the case of the emotions, which he calls “basic adaptations needed by all organisms in the struggle for individual survival” (1980, p. 145), Plutchik suggests that the selection occurred in the Cambrian era, 600 million years ago. Like the judgment theories, the cognitive appraisal theories emphasize the idea that the way in which an individual evaluates or appraises the stimulus determines the emotion. Barrett extended that to include emotions as concepts that are predictions (Barrett, 2017). For example, the cognitive appraisal may indicate that the individual has been unjustly treated, but the affective appraisal will not evaluate this as worthy of an emotion response. Roseman, I. J., & Smith, C. A. Brian Parkinson and his colleagues have developed a theory based upon these considerations (Parkinson, 1996, 1997; Parkinson, Fischer, & Manstead, 2005). The somatosensory cortices will respond as if the bodily activity was actually occurring. Plutchik, R. (1984). Bill could have considered the situation more thoroughly, but acting on this kind of feeling is, according to Damasio, often the way in which actions are chosen. This section will discuss some of the motivations for adopting this approach to explaining the emotions. Adapted from Roseman (1984, p. 31). Solomon, R. C. (1977). For example, different emotions will occur depending on whether an individual evaluates being laid-off as consistent with her current goals or inconsistent with them. Taking anger as an example, in Solomon’s theory, “What constitutes the anger is my judging that I have been insulted and offended” (1977, p. 47). There's many theories of emotion. In T. Dalgleish & M. J. The later part of the emotion process is a bodily response, for example, changes in heart rate, skin conductance, and facial expression. A constructivist view of emotion. His band often explains psychological music in their songs. There is much less agreement, however, about most of these other features that the emotions may (or may not) have. In Averill’s theory, transitory social roles are the roles that individuals adopt when they choose to play a particular part in a situation as it unfolds. This is similar to the feeling that children have towards their mothers, but it is experienced by adults. Early medieval medical theory of the emotions concentrated on theGalenic ideas of the humors and the system of the spirits, thevitalizing spirits in the heart and the psychic spirits in the nervesand the brain. The non-cognitive theories are in many ways a development of the folk psychological view of emotion. Cognitive determinants of emotions: A structural theory. For example, the possible responses for anger may include pouting, yelling, hitting, or perhaps no overt behavior at all. Power (Eds.). Some of the participants received injections of epinephrine that caused bodily changes that mimicked the fight-or-flight response of the sympathetic nervous system; however, only some of these men were told to expect these reactions as side effects of the injection. According to other theories, emotions are not causal forces but simply syndromes of components, which might include motivation, feeling, behavior, and physiological changes, but no one of these components is the emotion. Often the appraisal is not only quick but it happens without awareness, so I must postulate that the appraisal mechanism is able to operate automatically. Recall what you have learned about the sympathetic nervous system and our fight or flight response when threatened. Interpersonal factors are typically the main causes of emotion, and emotions lead people to engage in certain kinds of social encounter or withdraw from such interpersonal contact. This figure illustrates the major assertions of the James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and Schachter-Singer two-factor theories of emotion. Anger should not be displaced on an innocent third party, nor should it be directed at the target for reasons other than the instigation. This explanation allows Robinson to maintain the idea that emotions are non-cognitive while acknowledging that humans can have emotions in response to complex events. The past explains the present: Emotional adaptations and the structure of ancestral environments. The somatic feedback theorists differ from the cognitive and non-cognitive positions by claiming that the bodily responses are unique for each emotion and that it is in virtue of the unique patterns of somatic activity that the emotions are differentiated. Ekman says that the automatic appraisal mechanism is one kind of appraisal mechanism, but he also believes that cognitive appraisals are sometimes utilized. The basic idea is that when a stimulus is encountered it is appraised along these five dimensions. Hence, according to James, when the appropriate type of stimulus is perceived (that is a bear), this automatically causes a bodily response (trembling, raised heart rate, and so forth), and the individual’s awareness of this bodily response is the fear. As Solomon says, “by ‘judgment’, I do not necessarily mean ‘deliberative judgment’ … One might call such judgments ‘spontaneous’ as long as ‘spontaneity’ isn’t confused with ‘passivity'” (1977, p. 46). Damasio’s somatic feedback theory. Judgment of emotion: American and Malay antecedents. The standard contexts are evolutionary, social and internal. Drexel University The first path is quick, while the second enables more processing about details of the stimulus. Individuals in a society develop their emotions based on what they are exposed to and experience, either directly or indirectly (1986, 1995). This is one of the earliest formal theories of emotions, formed across 1884 and 1885 by William James and Carl Lange (and therefore sometimes known as the James-Lange theory). In A. P. Griffiths (Ed.). Cosmides and Tooby, and others who have similar theories, stress that these emotions are responses that enhanced fitness when the selection occurred—whenever that was in the past. Mood, on the other hand, refers to a prolonged, less intense, affective state that does not occur in response to something we experience. In K. R. Scherer, A. Schorr, & T. Johnstone (Eds.). In P. Shaver (Ed.). That message causes a physiological reaction. Parkinson, B., Fischer, A., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2005). In this example, fear is the mental state caused by feedback from the body (that is, the perception of the bodily changes). These stressors where also chronic in nature, which means that he exposed the rats to these stressors for long periods of time. Meanwhile, all of the non-cognitive theorists agree that bodily changes are part of the emotion process. Cannon didn’t agree with several aspects of the James-Lange theory of emotion. However, Prinz makes a distinction between what this mental state registers and what it represents. Robinson also suggests that the non-cognitive process may be followed by cognitive activity that labels an emotion response in ways that reflect the individual’s thoughts and beliefs. Cognitive theories account for these two observations by proposing that the way in which the individual evaluates the stimulus determines the emotion that is elicited. Emotion is a mode of behavior which is purposive, or has an intellectual content. 1199 words (5 pages) Essay. All of the judgment theories state that judgments are necessary for an emotion. These principles are what allow the various elements to be construed coherently as one particular emotion (1982). One of the common characteristics of some of the elicitors of happiness is release from accumulated pressure, tension, discomfort, etc. AER can influence the things you attend to, your appraisal, your choice to engage in an emotional experience, and your behaviors after an emotion is experienced (Mauss, Bunge, & Gross, 2007; Mauss, Levenson, McCarter, Wilhelm, & Gross, 2005). A. Simpson, D. T. Kenrick (Eds.). As a result, different emotions would be elicited. The third category of theories contains those that attempt to describe the emotion process itself. Today, although people still get bored and dejected, this emotion no longer exists because our emotions are, according to Harré and Finlay-Jones, “defined against the background of a different moral order” (p. 222). (credit “snake”: modification of work by “tableatny”/Flickr; credit “face”: modification of work by Cory Zanker). 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